Climbing
ROPE DESIGN & CONSTRUCTION
All ropes used for lead climbing should be dynamic. They are
designed to stretch when fallen on, absorbing shock and dissipating the energy
generated by the fall. Static ropes, such as those made for caving and rescue
work, are designed with minimal stretch. Although static and dynamic ropes look
the same, they are not interchangeable. Static ropes should never be used for
lead climbing or any application where dynamic loading may occur.
 Climbing ropes utilize a kernmantle construction consisting of a
core (kern) covered by a sheath (mantle). The core is the main load-bearing
element and largely determines a rope's characteristics, such as static
elongation, maximum impact force, and strength. The sheath is braided tightly
around the core and its primary purpose is to protect the core against
abrasion, but the relationship between the core and sheath also helps determine
a rope's handling characteristics.
Knots, bends, rock edges, and falls all reduce rope strength. For
example, running the rope over a carabiner with a diameter of 10 millimeters
will reduce the rope's strength by approximately 30%. Smaller diameter
carabiners or rock edges reduce the strength even further.
 WARNING: SHARP EDGES ARE EXTREMELY
DANGEROUS AND ARE THE MAIN CAUSE OF ROPE FAILURE.
Static elongation is the stretch of a rope when weighted with an 80 kg/176
pound load. A low static elongation is desirable for rappelling, ascending, and
hauling. Maximum impact force is the maximum load transmitted to the climber
during a fall. The current standard specifies a maximum impact force of
12kN/2640 pounds of force for single ropes and 8kN/1760 pounds for double
ropes.
A rope with a low maximum impact force absorbs more of the energy
generated in a fall than a rope with a high maximum impact force, thus
transmitting less energy to the protection system and the climber. However, low
impact force translates to more rope stretch, which may increase the chances of
hitting the ground.
 Historically, the UIAA (Union International des Associations
d'Alpinisme) was the international body that certified climbing ropes. The CEN
(Committee for European Normalization) now coordinates standards that are
upheld throughout the European Community. The CEN adopted the UIAA rope
standards, and ropes tested to CEN/UIAA standards now carry the CE mark. The US
government does not require ropes to carry a CE or a UIAA label, nor does it
recognize the CE standards. Therefore, standards are presently being developed
through the ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials).
The CE testing procedure consists of dropping an 80kg/176-pound
weight attached to an 2.6m/ 8.25-foot length of rope a distance of 4.8m/15.75
feet. This test yields a very severe fall which would be difficult to duplicate
in an actual climbing situation. It is important to note that ropes lose
elasticity, so their ability to absorb energy diminishes when subjected to
repeated falls over a short period of time.
While the CE/UIAA has set standards for these tests, all of the
results are pass/fail. A CE/UIAA label indicates that the rope has passed the
minimum tests only. Any other information listed on the rope label is at the
manufacturer's discretion. Number of falls, impact force, etc. are all based on
the manufacturer's claims, which may be based on theoretical estimation, and
not necessarily on test results.
ROPE ATTRIBUTES
Flexibility. If a rope is too stiff,
knots are difficult to tie and may even untie themselves. If a rope is too
loose, this can allow knots to tighten so much when loaded that they cannot be
untied.
Water absorption. Water absorption
greatly increases the weight of the rope, reduces its strength, and reduces its
ability to absorb impact forces. In cold weather, absorbed water freezes,
making the rope stiff and unmanageable (ice crystals also reduce rope
strength). Many nylon ropes are treated with a water-repellent coating to help
prevent moisture absorption. "Dry" ropes will not saturate immediately when
subjected to moisture; therefore, they will remain lighter and stronger than
untreated ropes. However, "dry" treatments do not stop water absorption, and
treatments wear off over time with rope use. Ropes with tightly woven sheaths
absorb water slower than ropes with loosely woven sheaths.
Abrasion resistance. Abrasion resistance
is the rope's ability to resist fraying. Weave patterns, flexibility, and
treatments all affect a rope's abrasion resistance.
Kinking. Every rope kinks. Help prevent
kinking by properly uncoiling the rope from the manufacturer's coil. Place your
arms inside the main coil. Spin your arms, allowing the rope to un-wind. Do not
pull the rope; let it unravel as your arms rotate. Further kinking problems are
generally due to improper coiling techniques (i.e. loop coils), and rappel
devices (i.e. fig. 8's and Munter hitches).
Hand. "Hand" describes how a rope feels
and handles. Diameter, weave pattern, coatings/treatments, sheath tightness,
sheath material, and production quality all help determine a rope's hand.
ROPE SELECTION
First, determine whether a dynamic or static rope is best for your
intended use. Always use a dynamic rope for lead climbing. Static
ropes may be used for rappelling, rescuing, caving, top roping, and hauling
where there is no chance of significant impact loading.
Typically, climbing ropes sold in the United States carry a CE mark
and a tag stating rope diameter, length, manufacturer's statement on number of
falls held, maximum impact force, weight per meter, and classification of rope
(single, double, etc.).
Single ropes are the most common and are
identified by the number "1" inside a circle on the label at either end of the
rope. Single ropes vary in diameter from 9.8 to 11 millimeters. Thick ropes
last longer and usually hold more falls. Small diameter ropes are lighter and
easier to clip into protection, making them the preferred choice for high-end
lead climbing and glacier travel.
Double ropes (or half ropes) are used
only in pairs. These ropes range from 8.2 to 9 millimeters in diameter and are
identified by a number "1/2" within a circle on the label at the end of the
rope. Double ropes may be clipped alternately through the protection, reducing
rope drag and decreasing the chances of rope failure over an edge.
Twin ropes are a third classification
offered by some manufacturers and are certified by the UIAA. These are
delineated by a "ƒ" symbol on the UIAA label. Both of the twin ropes are
clipped through every protection point. The strands should never be separated.
Twin ropes are uncommon in the United States. Double and twin ropes are designed
to be used with a matching rope. Use of unmatched ropes will cause
undue wear on one of the ropes, usually the one with the lowest working
elongation or greatest diameter.
Bi-colored ropes change colors or sheath
patterns at the midpoint. This feature allows you to easily find the center of
the rope.
INSPECTION OF ROPES
Inspect your rope before and after each use. It is the user's
responsibility to know the history of the rope and to determine when it should
be retired; keep a rope log on how many times it has been used and the number
of falls held. When in doubt, retire your rope. Generally, a rope should be
discarded after holding a long hard fall, if it has flat or soft spots, becomes
stiff, or shows sheath damage.
Retire a rope after no more than four years of occasional use, two
years of weekend climbing, or one year of active use.
Retiring a rope after only six months of hard use isn't uncommon; some climbing
gym ropes wear out after only a few weeks of intensive use. Also, multiple
short lead falls (common in sport climbing), bounding rappels, and shock-loaded
top rope falls can have a cumulative negative effect on the rope's
shock-absorbing capacity.
USE AND CARE OF ROPES
Always protect your rope at potential abrasion points.
Most ropes are retired because they become frayed, not because of the number of
falls held. Watch for sharp edges like rock crystals, bolt hangers, glass, and
even pack grommets, which can cut a rope's sheath. Retire your rope if you can
see the core at an abraded area or if the rope feels lumpy or flat in spots.
Keep your rope clean. Dirt shortens rope life by causing internal as
well as external abrasion. Transport and store your rope in a protective bag or
pack. Wash a dirty rope in cold water using mild, non detergent soap. Adding
fabric softener while washing improves rope flexibility by lubricating the
fibers. Do not bleach your rope. Air dry your rope away from direct sunlight. Do
not dry it in a dryer.
 Store your rope away from heat, sunlight and chemicals. Protect
your rope from all compounds containing acids, alkalis and oxidizing agents.
Avoid contact with battery acid and bleach. Avoid contact with petroleum
substances such as gasoline and oil which do not appreciably affect nylon ropes
by themselves but may contain additives that can cause damage. These substances
also attract dirt which causes the rope to wear more quickly.
Always use proper rappelling techniques. Fast rappels,
bounding, or swinging can damage your rope. Some rappel devices place a sharp
bend in the rope which creates excessive heat build up and stresses the rope's
fibers, leading to accelerated wear.
Never use a climbing rope for any purpose other than for what it
was intended. It is not for towing cars, trimming trees, working on
roof, etc.
Never step on a rope. Stepping on a rope grinds dirt into
the rope fibers, causing excessive wear.
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Harnesses
Information for consumers on the design,
use, maintenance and limitations of climbing harnesses.
A HARNESS forms the vital link between
the climber, the rope, and the rest of the protection chain. Beyond this
primary purpose, a harness can provide a place to rack gear and serve as a
belay seat when required. An understanding of the design, fit, selection, and
care of climbing harnesses is crucial to reducing the risks associated with
climbing.
HARNESS DESIGN
 Climbing harnesses come in three basic
designs: diaper style, waistbelt/leg loop combinations, and full body. Diaper
style and waistbelt/leg loop style are sometimes called "sit" or "seat"
harnesses.
Diaper harnesses have a waistbelt and a
webbing loop which is pulled through the crotch from behind to form the leg
loops. Diaper harnesses allow the leg loops to adjust several inches, so they
may be worn either in winter over thick clothing or in summer with lighter
clothing. Most diaper harnesses are further suit-ed for winter and alpine use
because the leg loops can be released while the independent waistbelt remains
securely tied to the rope. This makes clothing changes or heeding the call of
nature easier and safer. Diaper harnesses may or may not have padding.
 Harnesses with a waistbelt/leg loop combination are the
most common and usually the most comfortable harnesses. They consist of two
pieces: a waistbelt with a buckle closure and leg loops. Sometimes leg loops
are adjustable. Separate components allow the harness to ride correctly and
comfortably allowing both rear and front rises to be adjusted; if waistbelts
and leg loops are available separately, they can be sized more precisely to a
climber's anatomy. Most waistbelts and leg loops are padded for comfort.
Chest harnesses are good for supplying
additional support to a waistbelt/leg loop harness when it is needed-for
example, ascending or rappelling while wearing a pack. They should not be used
for leading, as a high tie in point may lead to whiplash of the spine and/or
difficulties breathing while hanging due to constriction of the diaphragm.
 Full body harnesses are designed for use with children
and anyone whose body shape will not allow a waist harness to function
properly. These harnesses incorporate chest, back and shoulder support to make
up for the lack of an anchor point at the hips. Most children need this style
harness until age 10. Follow the manufacturer's recommendation for fitting.
 Most harnesses use full-strength buckles to join
the waistbelt. Be sure to have a thorough understanding of the manufacturer's
recommendation for using the harness and the buckle. If the buckle and the
harness are not secured correctly, they can come apart, a potentially fatal
occurrence. Most harnesses must be buckled a very specific way in order to be
secure. Be certain that you follow the manufacturer's instructions to buckle
correctly every time.
Many harnesses simplify belaying and rappelling by virtue of having
either a belay/rappel loop permanently fixed to the harness, or by allowing you
to clip a large locking carabiner through the front portion of the belt and leg
loops.
HARNESS FIT
Even the most carefully designed and cushioned harness won't be
comfortable if it is too big or too small, nor will it be secure. If a harness
is too tight, it will restrict movement and/or pinch. A loose harness slips,
chafes, and, in an inverted fall, the climber could slip out of it.
When fitting your harness wear the clothing in which you intend to
climb. If this isn't convenient make sure you empty your pants pockets, remove
belts, and untuck shirts or sweaters before trying on a harness. Most specialty
climbing shops have a system set up to allow you to safely hang in a harness.
Hang in the harness for a few minutes to get a feel for how comfortably it
fits.
All harnesses should sit snugly above
the hip bones and be impossible to pull down. Be aggressive when trying to pull
down the harness and be realistic about your waistline. If you cannot get the
harness to stay above your hip bones, use a full body harness until your
waistline works with a pelvic style harness. If you cannot keep your harness
above your hips, it will not hold you in the event of an inverted fall. Be sure
that it is not so tight that it interferes with your breathing. Always follow
the manufacturer's recommendations for securing the buckle and for specific
fitting criteria. Fit leg loops snugly, but without binding.
Diaper harnesses usually adjust by
several inches in the legs, so fitting the waistbelt is your primary concern.
All diaper harnesses buckle at the waist, so follow the above sizing
instructions for buckled waistbelts.
 Be especially careful when fitting a seat harness.
If sized too large these harnesses can slide up onto your lower ribs,
compressing your diaphragm and leaving you gasping for air. When worn too small
they can compress your hips and legs, reducing mobility. You should have a
minimum of one inch and a maximum of two inches between the tie-in loops. When
in doubt, err on the small side, but be sure there are 3-4 inches of webbing
extending past the buckle when it is properly secured. Just like clothing, some
harness brands fit certain body styles better than others, so be sure to find
the right one.
HARNESS SELECTION
Multipurpose. Used for every climbing
function, from sport routes to multipitch free routes, most people climb in a
multipurpose harness. Top-end designs have belay/rappel loops, racking systems
with at least three well-placed gear loops, offset buckles on the waistbelts,
adjustable or elasticized rear risers, full padding, and weigh about one pound.
Sport/Competition. These harnesses are
lightweight and allow great maneuverability. Most harnesses of this type have
minimal frills, are made from narrow webbing and are scantily padded.
Big-wall/Aid. Here, comfort should be
your main guide. You spend a lot of time belaying on wall climbs, so a
belay/rappel loop is a necessity. Racking loops help prevent overly heavy
shoulder slings. Harnesses with trim, uncluttered tie-in areas make attaching
daisy chains easier.
Alpine. In alpine climbing, weight and
simplicity are everything. Most alpine harnesses take an ascetic's approach by
doing without heavy frills, such as padding. However, some have padded
waistbelts, allowing for cross-over into rock climbing. Adjustable, removable
leg loops allow you to put on the harness while wearing crampons or skis, or
remain tied to the rope when you attend to nature or change layers of clothing.
TYING IN
Check to see that the waistbelt is above your hips and that the
webbing has been threaded through the buckle according to the manufacturer's
recommendations.
 Thread the rope through all tie-in points according to the
manufacturer's directions; never tie in to the belay/rappel loop, equipment
loops, or rear haul loop. Do not double (or coil) the rope through the tie-in
points, as the friction generated will cause premature weare. Do not use the
rear haul loop as an anchor point.
Develop a system for putting on and tying into your harness. For
example, put on your harness, buckle the waist loop, thread the rope through
all tie-in points, complete the knot, and back it up in the same sequence every
time to avoid errors. Concentrate on what you're doing - don't be distracted by
a conversation with your partner and forget to finish your knot.
Finally, check the buckle and knots on your harness and your
partner's harness frequently while climbing and belaying to make sure they are
properly secure.
INSPECTION OF HARNESSES
Retire a harness when it shows visible signs of wear such as fading
or abrasion or after it has held a severe fall. Over time, the webbing will get
fuzzy at the tie-in points. This is OK. Be suspicious, though, of wear to the
stitching or excessive wear to the tie-in points.
Protect your harness from direct sunlight and heat and from
nylon-damaging substances such as acids, alkalis, oxidizing agents, and bleach.
Hand wash a dirty harness in cool water with a mild soap. Allow it to dry in a
shaded area.
Check your harness periodically to make sure the stitching is intact.
A harness should last about two years under normal weekend use. You can extend
the life of your harness by working the rope back through the tie-in points
gently when untying - forceful pulling causes these points to abrade quickly.
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Carabiners
Information for consumers on the design,
use, maintenance and limitations of carabiners.
CARABINERS are not all the same. Some
are built heavier and stronger to meet multipurpose demands. Others are
lightweight, less strong and designed for special use. Modern carabiners are
designed, tested and manufactured to ensure adequate strength for their
intended use, but any of them can break and/or open accidentally if used
improperly. Climbers who understand the design, use, and limitations of
carabiners can select and use them properly and reduce the risks associated
with climbing. 
CARABINER DESIGN
Oval carabiners are the original style.
Their large interior space holds lots of gear and their symmetrical curve
minimizes shifting when aid climbing. They work well in improvisational
situations, such as creating a carabiner-brake rappel. Two ovals in a "gates
opposed" configuration can also be used as a substiture for locking carabiners.
However, ovals are by design the weakest of all carabiners.
"D" shaped carabiners are very popular due to their high
strength-to-weight ratio. This feature is the result of their design, which
places the majority of the load onto the spine of the carabiner, its strongest
part.
Asymmetrical "D" carabiners are smaller at one end than the other to
reduce weight. They generally have larger gate openings, which makes clipping
them easier. Many are also available with bent gates.
 Bent gate carabiners have concave gates which makes them
the easiest to clip into, but if not used properly they can also easily unclip
from the rope. The bent gate on the carabiner does not significantly affect the
strength or weight of the carabiner.
Bent gate carabiners should only be used on the end of the quick draw
or runner which the rope clips into. Never clip them directly to the
protection. The correct way to clip a bent gate carabiner is with the rope from
the belay coming to the carabiner from the back and the rope leading to the
climber exiting out the bent gate to the front (fig. 1). Clipping opposite to
this can cause the rope to unclip from the carabiner if the rope tracks back
across the outside of the gate when it is loaded, as in a fall (fig. 2).
 Several companies are now using wire gates on carabiners in an
effort to improve performance and decrease cost. Wire gate carabiners employ a
loop of stainless steel wire that creates its own spring mechanism without
added parts and that allows for larger gate openings.
While these gates may not appear as strong as conventional styles,
they are in fact just as strong and are less likely to open during a fall due
to the decreased mass of the gate. Wire gate style carabiners should not be
used for carabiner brakes.
Locking carabiners have mechanisms for
locking the gate closed; this lock can vary from a simple threaded collar that
screws down over the body to intricate spring-loaded "automatic-locking"
mechanisms.
 Locking carabiners can be oval, D-shaped, or HMS (pear-shaped);
HMS carabiners allow several ropes to be clipped in at one time. They are the
preferred style for Munter hitch belay/rappels and work well for use with belay
plates and rappel devices. Use a locking carabiner anytime you depend on a
single carabiner, such as during a rappel, while belaying, or at your first
piece of protection. (If you do not have a locking carabiner, two non-locking
carabiners with their gates opposed can be used as a substitute. The gates of
the carabiners should form an "X" when they are opened by hand.)
Always be sure to double check that locking carabiners are indeed
locked before you begin climbing, belaying or rappelling.
PROPER USE OF CARABINERS
When a fall is caught by a rope through a carabiner, many dynamics
take place that can cause "gate lash." This momentary opening of the
carabiner's gate may be due to the gate's inertia overcoming the spring
tension, collision of the carabiner against another object, or simply the
vibration of the rope over the carabiner.
If the load comes onto the carabiner at the instant the gate is open,
carabiner failure may occur. (A carabiner with its gate open typically has less
than 50% of its rated, gate-closed strength.) Using carabiners with high
gate-open strengths or locking gates helps to eliminate the chances of this
type of carabiner failure. Gate design and stiff spring tensions may also
decrease gate lash. Keep clothing, equipment, and natural objects from
interfering with gate closure.
It is best to use a quickdraw or runner when clipping protection.
This reduces rope drag and decreases the chance of the rope's upward travel
dislodging your protection. Make sure the carabiner clipped to the protection
has a straight-gate design. This reduces the chance of cross loading or of
having the rope flip across the gate and unclip itself. Never clip the rope
into fixed equipment with a single non-locking carabiner.
Modern sport climbing often involves taking numerous short falls
before achieving success. Although impact loads generated in these falls aren't
necessarily high, repeated falls cause equipment to wear out quickly. Check
your carabiners (and all your gear, for that matter) frequently for signs of
wear. This wear is particularly visible in climbing gyms that use aluminum, vs.
steel, carabiners. These softer metal carabiners can be worn severely by
repeated lowerings in a small amount of time.
A modern, "super light" carabiner is strong along the main axis, but
its narrow diameter rod stock has less ability to handle cross loading, it has
a reduced gate-open strength, and generally has a shorter life span. Its narrow
spine works as an "edge" to fray ropes. Use a super light carabiner only when
weight is absolutely critical.
Use standard sized carabiners and 11 millimeter ropes when "working a
climb." The larger diameter of these carabiners is gentler on your rope than
that of lightweight, smaller diameter carabiners.
Retire a carabiner if it is dropped a long distance onto a hard
surface. Non-visible damage may have weakened it.
MAINTENANCE OF CARABINERS
Keep carabiners dry and clean. Protect carabiners from corrosion. Do
not store in humid or salty air, with damp equipment or clothing, or near
corrosive chemicals.Do not file carabiners for any reason. Sand any burrs with
220 - 400 grade sandpaper. If this does not remove the burr, destroy the
carabiner. If a carabiner gate sticks, wash it in warm soapy water, rinse
thoroughly and lubricate with dry graphite around the hinge area, inside the
spring hole and locking mechanism. Perform the 3-step inspection process
outlined below before each use.
Inspection of Carabiners
Falling onto bolts and pitons is particularly hard on carabiners.
Made of aluminum, carabiners are easily grooved and nicked by bolt hangers and
pitons, which have narrow edges and are made of a harder material, steel.
Environmental effects (such as salt water) can also shorten the life of your
carabiner.
There are 3 simple steps for inspecting carabiners before each use:
1. All surfaces of the carabiner should be free of cracks, sharp edges,
corrosion, burrs, or excessive wear.
2. Gate opening and closing should be quick and easy. Be sure the gate and any
locking mechanism closes freely and completely.
3. Rivets should not be bent, loose or missing.
If your carabiner does not pass the above inspection, remove it from service and
destroy it.
Limitations of Carabiners
 Carabiners are generally rated to 18 -
28 kN (4046 to 6294 pounds of force, not weight), making them strong enough to
handle loads found in normal climbing situations. However, there are many ways
to use a carabiner incorrectly that can result in failure at loads well below a
carabiner's rated strength.
Carabiners are designed to be loaded along their major axis (end to
end) with the gate closed. Loading the carabiner in any other manner will
reduce its strength to the point where it may fail under normal climbing loads.
Dangerous Carabiner Loading Conditions
A carabiner with its gate open can fail at less than half its major axis
strength. Always avoid situations where the gate could open accidentally. 
Cross-loading a carabiner along its minor axis (gate to spine) should always be
avoided, as carabiner strength in this direction is usually less than half its
major axis strength. 
Carabiners loaded over an edge (a potential problem when placing protection in
horizontal cracks) can break at a very low load. 
Do not load carabiners from more than 2 directions. 
The Climbers Credo
Climbing and mountaineering activities which include technical rock,
snow, and ice climbing, back country skiing, and general mountaineering,
combine many unique opportunities and choices to experience individual freedom
and self-determination in our natural environment. An essential element of this
expression of freedom through climbing and mountaineering is the acceptance of
the many risks and dangers that are inherent in and integral to these
activities.
The exercise of good judgment and common sense can help reduce the
risks. The proper use of climbing equipment can also help reduce these risks.
However, such risks and dangers cannot be totally eliminated, even with the
proper use of climbing equipment. By the purchase and use of climbing equipment
and your participation in climbing and mountaineering activities, you are
personally accepting full responsibility for all of the inherent risks of these
activities, including without limitation the risk of injury or death.
We recommend that you take the time to learn the proper use and
limitations of each individual piece of climbing equipment. Obtain personal
instruction from a qualified person well versed in the appropriate techniques
that may help reduce the risks of these activities.
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